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Facing Environmental Problems: the Case of the Republic of Moldova
The long history of natural resource management on the territory of present-day Moldova has resulted in the significant changes of all elements of Moldovan nature. This impact on the natural environment has triggered an array of environmental problems that the country is facing at the moment. Among more than 2,000 different air pollutants, the most serious are dust, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon oxides, heavy metals (e.g., lead), and hydrocarbons. The quality of Moldovan air is affected by both transboundary and local polluting agents. Since the 1980s, the overall emissions of air pollutants have significantly decreased in the country, which can be explained by the recession of the national economy. At present, the total emissions of classic air pollutants, such as sulfur, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter, in the country, without the territory of Transnistria, were estimated at 135,000 metric tons (compared to an estimated 550 thousand metric tons in the early 1990s). However, the share of emissions from mobile sources in the total national estimated emissions has been rising systematically. It accounts for almost 90% of the total emissions in the country, without the territory of Transnistria. In some urban settlements (e.g., Chi?in?u, B?l?i, Cahul), this share exceeds 90-95 percent. It can be explained by a twofold increase in the number of cars in the country, reaching at present 400,000. The load of toxic substances emitted by cars per capita per year reaches 120 kg in big cities. The main stationary sources of air pollution are energy and heat generation plants. Their emissions account for almost 80% of those of all stationary sources. The single most polluting source is the Dnestrovsc Thermal Power Plant, located in Transnistria, which emits more pollution than all other stationary sources of the country. The emissions of carbon dioxide are not systematically inventoried. Emissions from agriculture and households, although they can be relatively high, are not inventoried. Moreover, emissions of various toxic substances, e.g. heavy metals and volatile organic compounds, are neither estimated nor reported. Reported emissions from mobile sources come almost exclusively from petrol fuelled road vehicles. Diesel fuelled transport, mainly rail and off road vehicles, construction machinery and tractors are excluded from the estimations. Road vehicle emissions are estimated on the basis of the statistics of imported fuels and the 1983 former Soviet, theoretical emission rates for different pollutants, per mass of petrol or diesel consumed, without taking into account the quality variations of fuels, the technical conditions of vehicles, or driving conditions. Substantial pollution pressure would probably appear, if all emission sources were taken into account and their emissions systematically inventoried. For example, the consumption of wood as fuel has grown significantly during the last decade and most of it can be attributed to residential heating. There is no nation wide air quality monitoring. Suspended particulates are measured only in Chi?in?u, B?l?i, R?bni?a, and Tiraspol, although several other urban settlements, such as Rezina and Dnestrovsc, have significant air pollution problems. All city monitoring stations were built and equipped in Soviet times. City monitoring is complemented by measuring wet deposition acidity. The data show rising acidity over the past several decades. If acid rains constituted 35 percent of all annual precipitation in the country in the 1980s, at present, this figure exceeds 70 percent. Available monitoring data indicate that the concentration of nitrogen dioxide exceeds the WHO annual guideline for NO2 in B?l?i 105 days a year and in Tiraspol – 54 days a year. In general, the relatively high annual concentrations of particulate matter prevail in all monitored cities, exceeding the present WHO guidelines in Chi?in?u 112 days a year and in B?l?i – 75 days a year. The real values may be higher, though, than the emission estimates suggest. Moreover, it is known that suspended substances contain much lead, benzopyrene, and possibly other carcinogenic components. The concentration of carbon monoxide in Chi?in?u exceeds the WHO guidelines 106 days a year. At current levels of nitrogen oxides and other traffic-related pollutants, particularly during shorter exposures, when standard levels are significantly exceeded, the urban dwellers of Moldova are liable to various health problems. There is no unified water quality monitoring system in Moldova. The actual situation in water management is confusing, and the system needs to be completely overhauled. Surface water quality in the country varies from good to very low. The water quality of the Nistru and Prut rivers, and big reservoirs, is generally satisfactory. In comparison with the 1950s, the mineralization of the Nistru’s water has increased by about 50%. During the past two decades, the concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus have increased. These two levels do not exceed the standard limits for drinking water supply, but they are rather high and are causing eutrophication, particularly in the Dub?sari reservoir. Downstream from Soroca, Camenca, Tighina, and Tiraspol, ammonia and nitrogen can be found as a result of residual water overflow that is insufficiently treated. Besides, the increasing quantities of petroleum substances, phenols, and detergents have been recorded. The concentration of heavy metals accumulated in the sediments of the Dub?sari reservoir exceeds 400 times that in upstream river waters. On the whole, the water of the Nistru river is moderately polluted. The Prut’s water is particularly polluted by organic substances. The water of the Prut is generally moderately polluted, but downstream from Ungheni, the water is seriously polluted. The waters of most small rivers are degraded and seriously polluted. Only 25% of groundwater can be used for economic purposes without pretreatment because of their generally high mineralization, naturally high content of fluorine, and high concentrations of ammonia nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and methane. The concentration of ammonium in groundwaters exceeds the allowable limits 2-3 times in the north of the country and 3-4 times in the south. The artesian groundwater has so far not been seriously polluted by anthropogenic sources. By contrast, subsoil waters undergo intensive anthropogenic pollution mainly from nitrates, the main sources being livestock complexes and farms, rural settlements not equipped with sewer systems, uncontrolled waste disposal, and the excessive usage of mineral fertilizers. The concentration of nitrates in subsoil waters in the public wells of most villages exceeds 2-3 times the allowable limits. The Ministry of Health has recorded an overall marked deterioration in the quality of drinking water. Only 81% of urban dwellers and 17% of villagers have access to centralized drinking water supply systems. Groundwater sources under 60% of the country’s territory do not satisfy drinking water requirements. The drinking water in a half of all village wells is estimated to be polluted with agricultural chemicals or their decay products. In some regions, the percentage of water samples exceeding health related and chemical standards is very high (e.g., more than 90% in Cead?r Lunga). Domestic sewage and wastewater from industrial and other economic activities are a major source of surface and groundwater pollution. Of 580 wastewater treatment installations, built in Soviet times, only 330 are capable of wastewater treatment and only around 130 are functioning at the moment. Most built installations do not work for a variety of reasons. One of the reasons is the high cost of their maintenance and repair. Many municipal wastewater treatment plants have been overloaded by heavy metals because some industrial facilities do not work properly. In some rural areas, facilities have stopped operation because their technical lifetime has been exceeded. At present, of the total volume of wastewater, which required some treatment (around 100 million m3), around 9 million m3 of untreated and highly polluted wastewater is released into Moldovan surface water bodies. This can be explained by the improper management of wastewater treatment plants and frequent blackouts. In some cases, pollution standards for residual wastewater are ignored because of the limited capacity of some treatment plants. A critical situation has occurred in the Nistru river below Soroca, Rezina, and Criuleni, where numerous untreated wastewater discharges have taken place. Agricultural activities greatly influence the quality of Moldovan waters. Because of a considerable decrease in the use of agricultural chemicals in field husbandry, animal husbandry has now a particularly important impact on the environment. Until the 1990s, about 10 million m3 of liquid waste with a high content of salts, organic substances, pathogenic microorganisms, etc., had been used as organic fertilizer. This amount has significantly reduced since then. The long-term storage of these livestock wastes in improper reservoirs has caused their infiltration into groundwater, entailing chemical and biological pollution. The wastewaters of at least 35 big animal farms are not treated at present. The construction or the reconstruction of wastewater treatment plants is not carried out. Roughly three-fourths of the land area of Moldova or around 2.5 million ha is covered with chernozem which is Moldova’s main natural resource and the main reason for the agricultural orientation of the country’s economy. No other country in the world has such a high share of chernozems. In Transnistria, chernozems occupy more than 90 percent of the total land area. Erosion as such - and its converse, the deposition of eroded soil particles - is not an environmental problem but a normal and natural process. Soils exist only because of past erosion and deposition. The conservation problem involved in soil erosion is the accelerated erosion that occurs when soil cover in the form of living or dead plant material is removed. In such cases the soil then erodes at a rate faster than it can be replaced by normal deposition of particles on the soil surface or by the breakdown of rocks and minerals. Throughout the long history of agricultural development on Moldovan lands, the natural process of soil erosion has been accelerated by improper agricultural practices and unsustainable soil management including inappropriate cultivation methods, the destruction of original natural vegetation, clean cultivation, overgrazing, excessive fertilization and irrigation and many others. Furthermore, soil erosion proper is often associated with other unfavorable soil processes such as secondary salinization of the soil (the formation of a salty crust that renders the soil infertile), soil degradation (the decline of soil fertility, soil compaction, the destruction of soil profile), soil pollution, etc. No doubt, soil erosion has long been recognized as a major environmental problem in Moldova. It has been estimated that at least 1,500,000 ha (areas on slopes) or around 59% of Moldovan agricultural lands are threatened with erosion. In some regions of the country, as much as 95 percent of agricultural land area can be eroded. At present, the area of eroded soil is over 850,000 ha, or one-third of agricultural lands, including two-thirds of arable land. More than 350,000 ha of agricultural land is seriously affected by erosion, which resulted in the 40-60 percent loss of soil productivity. The eroded area grows by 0.5-1% a year. The annual loss of fertile soil particles and humus amounts to about 20-25 million tons and 600,000 tons, respectively. Loss of topsoil reduces crop productivity over time. Field experiments on corn, wheat and sunflower show that the decrease in yields is significant. Ravines occupy an area of around 12,000 ha. Landslides represent another significant source of damage to soil cover. The total area, which is subject to landslides, is at least 500,000 ha, including around 30,000 ha under active landslides. More than 60 percent of Moldovan settlements are affected by landslides. Some of the landslides can be very destructive. The development of highly specialized and concentrated agriculture in the country in Soviet times resulted in the application of large amounts of agricultural chemicals, inorganic fertilizers, pesticides (15.4 kg/ha of agricultural land in 1986), and herbicides. According to Moldovan scientists, the quantities of nitrogen fertilizer used between 1980 and 1988 exceeded requirements by 20,000-30,000 tons a year. In 1988-1989, 30.2% of soil and 8.8% of vegetation samples showed traces of pesticides and 7% of food did not meet health standards on chemical contents, 1% exceeded the maximum permissible concentrations of pesticides. High levels of nitrates and pesticides in the soil profile are still observed in spite of a significant reduction in the use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides during the last decade. Such dangerous heavy metals as cadmium, mercury, lead, copper, chromium, and nickel have been found in Moldovan soils. However, no reliable information on their concentrations in soils or waters is currently available. About two-thirds of alluvial meadow soils were ‘improved’ in Soviet times by drainage systems. During the last several decades, the concentration of salts in these soils has increased. As a result, about 70 percent of them have become unsuitable for normal agricultural use. In addition to erosion and degradation, urban encroachment is responsible for an annual loss of 1,500-2,000 ha of soils. During the last 3 decades, around 200,000 ha of fertile soils have been lost because of the development of infrastructure, industrial growth and uncontrolled urban sprawl. As much as one-fifth or even one-fourth of Moldovan lands could have been covered by forests and woodland prior to the 17th century. However, by the beginning of the 19th century, many forests had disappeared at the expense of expanding agricultural lands. During the 19th century, the destruction of Moldovan forests reached its highest rate. Hundreds of hectares of forested areas were clear-cut and turned into tobacco fields, fruit orchards, vineyards, and arable lands. It has been calculated that in 1812 forests on the territory of Basarabia occupied about 450,000 ha. By 1918, this forested area had reduced to approximately 230,000 ha. This negative trend changed only after World War II as a result of the implementation of several afforestation and reforestation programs elaborated and adopted by the Soviet government of the Moldavian SSR from the 1960s to the 1980s. The areas under forests expanded from around 230,000 ha in 1945 to 371,400 ha in 1990. As of January 1st 2002, forests and woodland in the Republic of Moldova occupy 423,759 ha including 28,683 ha in Transnistria and 15,064 ha in G?g?uzia. Of the whole area under forests and woodland, forests occupy 373,675 ha, the areas under shrubs constitute 19,335 ha and the areas under shelter belts cover 30,749 ha. Thus, around 11 percent of Moldovan territory is forested at present. Most Moldovan forests perform water and soil protection and recreation functions. As a result, the country does not have a large-scale timber industry. In the year 2000, so-called main and forest reconstruction fellings were conducted on an area of 2,488 ha and constituted around 202,000 m3 of wood most of it being firewood. So-called thinning and selective sanitary fellings are the principal silvicultural techniques for growing healthy, sustainable and highly productive forest stands. Besides, thinning and selective sanitary fellings are a supplementary source of wood. In the year 2000, thinning and selective sanitary fellings were conducted on an area of around 12,000 ha and provided around 174,000 m3 of wood most of it being firewood (31,500 ha and 277,000 m3 in 1980). This significant reduction of the total volume of these silvicultural techniques, which has been observed since the early 1990s, is a very dangerous trend and may result in the deterioration of the quality of Moldovan forests. Forest regeneration (natural, mixed and artificial) is extremely important for the development of sustainable forestry in any country. The highest rates of artificial forest regeneration, or afforestation by planting, were recorded in Moldova in the 1960s and the 1970s when from some 3,000 to 7,000 ha on the average were afforested annually only in the forests managed by state forestry enterprises. During the 1990s, the areas annually afforested by the state forestry enterprises of Moldova were decreasing from around 3,000 ha in 1990 to 800 ha in 2000. At the same time, forest regeneration activities in the Republic of Moldova have to be expanded. One of the reasons for this expansion is the regulation of several fast-spreading exotic species. The black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), a North American species, is the commonest tree species in the state closed forests of the country. This species was planted to stabilize eroded and degraded lands mainly from the 1950s to the 1980s. It occupies around 93,900 ha or 31.8 percent of the total area under state closed forests. The black locust, which is one of the least productive woody species in the country, spreads rapidly occupying the habitats of native tree species. In the valleys of the Nistru and the Prut rivers, the introduced American maple box elder (Acer negundo) having no pathogenic organisms in the Moldovan environment has been naturally replacing native willow and other riparian tree species. The aforementioned and several other exotic species should be replaced with oak and other valuable native species to increase the productivity and the sustainability of Moldovan forests. Moldovan forests suffer from different anthropogenic factors, the most significant of them being illegal felling and livestock pasturing. There has been a steady upward trend in such abuses, particularly during the last 12 years. According to the official statistics generated by the Moldsilva State Forestry Association, the total volume of registered illegal fellings in the forests managed by state forestry enterprises constituted 515 m3 in 1975, 826 m3 in 1985, 1,048 m3 in 1990, and 7,096 m3 of wood in 1996. Probably, the actual volume of illegal fellings is much higher. But the greatest damage is done at present to forests in the hands of agricultural enterprises and municipalities. In 1995 alone, the volume of illegal felling in those forests was estimated by the Moldsilva experts at around 150,000 m3. The overall increase in the volume of unauthorized felling in Moldovan forests can be explained mainly by the inability of most villagers to pay for firewood needed for heating purposes. The negative influence of climatic factors and the low biological resistance of Moldovan forests encourage periodic outbreaks of infestation and disease. The total affected forested area at the end of the year 2000 constituted around 88,000 ha including 57,300 ha of forests required some treatment, of which less than half were treated using mainly aerial pest control measures. The alteration of the hydrological regime of most Moldovan rivers in Soviet times led to the withering of riparian and floodplain forests including some valuable forest stands composed of the pubescent oak, English oak, the European ash and other species. The conversion of Moldovan steppe ecosystems to agricultural (mainly arable) lands and their serious damage by overgrazing and other agricultural practices have resulted in the loss of native xerophytic plant species and the subsequent invasion of exotic aggressive species. The remaining small, up to 300 ha in size, fragments with the original steppe vegetation occupy only about 65,000 ha. During the last 40 years, an estimated 200,000 ha of natural meadow ecosystems in the Republic of Moldova have been destroyed by drainage, overgrazing, and other human activities. At present, they cover only about 100,000 ha and can be found only along the Prut and the Nistru rivers. For several centuries, as cities and towns have been developed in the country, the green areas of urban settlements including urban forests have been altered, depleted, or eliminated. We still observe this negative trend, which can be explained by improper city management, the lack of financial resources and the specialists in the field of urban forestry, and many other reasons. In downtowns, the sites for new construction are frequently taken from green areas. If forested parks are more tolerant to human impacts, trees growing along the highways and near the commercial or industrial buildings experience by far stronger pressure. Most of them die before they reach their maturity. The main reason is increasing environmental pollution caused by the uncontrolled growth of private vehicles and polluting private small businesses such as car washes or gas stations. According to the Chi?in?u Ecological Agency, the total green forested area of the municipality of Chi?in?u constitutes 7,648 ha (as of January 1st 2000), or 19 percent of the total municipal area. The green areas, located in the city of Chi?in?u, decreased from 4,147 ha in 1990 to 4,005 ha in 1995 and to only 3,623 ha (or 27% of the territory of the city and 45.7 m2 per urban inhabitant) as of January 1st 2000. Illegal fellings in the municipality of Chi?in?u constituted 2,341 trees in 2000. Afforestation in the municipality is extremely low and constituted only 20 ha in 2000. During the last several centuries, as many as 100 species of higher plants and 40 species of mammals and birds have disappeared from the territory of the country. Among them were the aurochs (Bos primigenius), wisent (Bison bonasus), European wild horse (Equus caballus caballus), saiga (Saiga tatarica), lynx (Felis lynx), capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), and the blackcock (Lyrurus tetrix). To protect the remaining species of Moldovan flora and fauna, a number of protected areas of different categories have been established. At present, according to the Law on Protected Areas of 1998, the total area under the protection of the state, excluding the area of the Ramsar site, constitutes 66,467.3 ha or less than 2 percent of the territory of the country. This area is much smaller than those in most other European countries (e.g., around 3 percent in Ukraine, 5 percent in Romania, 7 percent in France, 13 percent in Germany, 18 percent in the UK and 25 percent in Austria). The relatively small share of the natural areas protected by the state in the total area of the Republic of Moldova and the fragmented character of protected areas do not provide the effective conservation of biological diversity in the country. This situation has been further complicated by a low level of the protection regime in most natural areas protected by the state. A number of cases of illegal hunting or firewood collection by the villagers on protected areas have been reported. The strictly protected territories are represented by 5 scientific reserves occupying a total area of 19,378 ha. They include two forest reserves in central Moldova – the Codru Reserve occupying 5,177 ha including 723 ha of strictly protected area and the Plaiul Fagului Reserve occupying 5,642 ha – where the most valuable forest ecosystems of the country are protected. Two other reserves are located on the Prut floodplain - the Prutul de Jos Reserve occupying 1,691 ha and the P?durea Domneasc? Reserve with an area of 6,032 ha. They play an important role in the preservation of floodplain forest ecosystems. The fifth scientific reserve, Iagorl?c, with a land area of 836 ha, serves for the protection and study of the unique aquatic ecosystem of the Nistru River. The ecosystems of certain scientific reserves are threatened by economic activities in their vicinities. Thus, the only deposit of crude oil in the country is located at V?leni, in the vicinity of the Prutul de Jos Scientific Reserve. About 20,000 metric tons of crude oil had been extracted during the exploration and the parallel exploitation of the V?leni deposit by 1984, when the exploitation of the deposit was stopped. In July 1995, the Moldovan government awarded a 20-year exclusive oil and gas development concession to Redeco, a US company active in oil and natural gas exploration, gasification, and power generation. It is clear that production from the field, which is estimated to be about 100,000 metric tons of crude oil per year, can only slightly alleviate Moldova’s energy-import dependency. At the same time, oil extraction might worsen the environmental situation in Lake Beleu, located in the center of the reserve, one of the last natural floodplains in the lower Danube region. The second edition of the Red Data Book of the Republic of Moldova, published in 2001, includes 242 species of plants, fungi, and animals (the first edition, issued in 1976, contained only 55 species of vertebrate animals and higher plants). Some specialists believe that the number of species enlisted in the Red Data Book should be at least 600. However, the level of the protection of already enlisted species is extremely low. The Ministry of Ecology, Construction and Territorial Development, with the help of many other governmental organizations and institutions and environmental NGOs, has been working on the improvement of the environmental situation in the country. During the last decade, almost 20 international conventions have been signed and ratified, 25 laws have been adopted and about 50 regulations and instructions have been approved, which have formed a legal basis for the sustainable management of natural resources in the country and for the performance of the environmental sector in general. The Constitution of the Republic of Moldova, adopted on July 29th 1994 and amended on July 5th 2000, states that every person has a right to the safe environment and that environmental protection is the obligation of every citizen. Only the contribution of all people living in the Republic of Moldova to the implementation of the provisions of international environmental conventions and of the national environmental legislation will lead to the solution of the aforementioned environmental problems and the restoration of an unstable ecological balance in the country. References
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